Design

This section provides an overview of common design themes in projects. To understand them and perhaps even implement them in future projects, no prior knowledge in architecture or engineering is required. First, realistic expectations should be set. Is it about a simple, cost-effective building with basic functionality, or about a representative object with focuses such as sustainability, aesthetics, and microclimate? This determines the consideration of various design aspects. Regardless of standards, small decisions can lead to significant improvements without heavily impacting the budget.

However, they require more time and resources in the planning. Not every measure is necessary for every project. Even minimal changes can be effective. The first crucial question: is professional support even needed? And is it feasible? It seems to be a simple answer, yet many projects only go through construction companies, as they take over the entire process as well as the design, and less involvement from others is required. Many projects use older designs as a basis, by slightly adjusting existing plans or reimplementing the same projects.

There are certain typologies that are common, mostly long building blocks, which are sometimes adapted to L or U shapes. Example of a simple, temporary building, that was cheaply built by a construction company. This visualization was the only project documentation and there was only a total price. Foundation on a flat, thin concrete base only about 30 cm deep. On top of that, walls, floor slab, metal columns, and brick walls were built, without any horizontal stabilization. Despite daily use, the safety of this building is questionable.

It is not a typical example, but it shows that anything is possible and one should always keep the process in mind. The fact that someone has carried out many similar projects does not necessarily make them competent. One might try to find architectural support for the project on a voluntary basis, including help with design and support during the construction process as well as remote monitoring. The many online architecture competitions for educational institutions in the Global South show that there are numerous architects worldwide who are willing and able to engage in such collaboration, providing professional support to non-profit organizations.

It is, of course, difficult to find the right support. Some experts are too experienced and lack the necessary flexibility to work with the different implementation methods of projects in a development cooperation project. Some are completely inexperienced and that is not good either. Ideally, it should be someone, who has been involved in such projects before and has at least some experience on site. There are also various examples of projects that have been carried out by well-known architectural firms and published in numerous magazines, as well as different design-build projects, that have been implemented by universities. Such comprehensive support is often unrealistic, as it is time- and resource-intensive. In this video, we highlight decision aids that can offer a middle solution.

The usual floor plan in special public buildings, such as schools, is often an elongated building. Very typical for public schools. When one thinks of school buildings, this is exactly what comes to mind. This construction method is straightforward and any construction company can build such buildings almost without blueprints. However, it can represent a missed opportunity. Typical school buildings in the Global South, especially in the context of development cooperation, usually consist only of classrooms and some office space for teachers.

Other areas such as libraries, laboratories, multipurpose areas, or gymnasiums are almost never built, because funding is rarely available. This leaves only one option, to create an alternative to these secondary spaces, namely in the outdoor area around the building. To enable something like this, an elongated building shape is not ideal, as its shape is very neutral and does not provide opportunities to define outdoor areas. The building simply stands centrally on the property.

By dividing it into several segments with open spaces in between, a more interesting environment emerges. Yes, construction costs would slightly increase and the planning would become more complex, but it would provide the possibility of additional enclosed rooms, courtyards and playgrounds, which would enhance project quality and usable space. Some outdoor areas could be partially covered, to provide some shade.

When it comes to the property and construction site, one should always be careful and precise, as planning errors and misunderstandings often occur here and this does not even take into account the various ownership issues that often arise. First, one must be 100% sure that the property is exactly the intended size. The safest way is to walk the property personally and measure the distances from corner to corner. Modern GPS technology on mobile devices can make this task easier.

Every project should be based on a clear cadastral plan with definite measurements, which should be compared with the reality on site. Often these details do not match. If the differences are minor, they are of no significance, but very often larger issues arise as soon as one begins the verification. There are many online tools that can provide additional information and help avoiding potential misunderstandings. A simple tool is Google Maps, which everyone has access to.

Here, one can easily check the property size, side lengths, and total area, as long as the project area is sufficiently captured by satellite, which is true for most locations. As you can see in this video, it only takes a few clicks and all basic information is available. In urban environments, the property size can be easily verified, as it is clearly marked by neighboring walls. For remote and larger properties, it becomes more complicated.

More effort may be needed to check whether existing structures, fixed formations, or other obstacles could affect the construction work, as these are usually not visible on satellite images or cadastral plans. If available, boundary stones help, marking the corners of the property. However, their position should also be double-checked. Information from various community members, especially consulting the neighbors, is of course very helpful. They usually know much more than what is in the documents.

There is usually vegetation everywhere. It is hard to orient oneself and easy to get lost or end up on a neighboring property. Therefore, one should use the support of modern technology and the internet as much as possible. Another important aspect that is hard to recognize when walking around and often deceives, is the terrain slope. Very often, a terrain covered with vegetation feels flat. Even with a slope of up to 10%, an assessment without measurement is very difficult. Ideally, one should build parallel to the slope.

However, this is often not implemented. As the photos show, building perpendicular to the slope is not a very complicated construction method and often the only option for small properties. However, it is not necessary if it can be avoided. For larger properties, there are usually better options for building positioning, provided that one plans early. And this is what a 10% slope looks like. Which means that the height increases by 1 meter every 10 meters. These classrooms are about 7×7 meters in size.

Which means that if one corner is level, the opposite one is 1 meter higher. This requires careful planning. Another example is a school complex on a steeply sloped terrain, where all buildings are constructed parallel to the slope. Each contour line shows a height difference of 1 meter, with a total of about 8 meters across the property. Due to this positioning of the buildings, access to each object is easy. And the terrain or the paving serves as a path along the property.

The floor slabs of the classrooms are realized without terracing on a level. It is crucial to Know the exact slope before planning anything. And carrying out measurements with the right set instruments is often impossible due to budget constraints. Especially in the early phases of the project, when it is most important. A simple method to measure the slope, is to use a long hose filled with water based on the principle of the level, where the water always remains at the same height.

With some trigonometry, the slope can be easily determined. This process should be repeated at various locations on the property. Another, somewhat less precise, but much simpler method to get a good overview of the heights, is again Google. This time Google Earth Pro, which can be installed for free. First, find the location on the map and set the path at the desired spot: it contains an elevation profile with more accurate slopes and heights. Multiple paths can be drawn at different locations on the property, in order to obtain more information.

If one wants to create a model of the entire terrain, that is also possible, but the process is more complex. It implies using a paid version of SketchUp, in which the 3D terrain data can be imported. The terrain is imported with texture, can be converted into a solid object and then exported to other CAD programs. This is especially useful in the design phase, but also for visualizations later on.

If the terrain modeling seems too complex, here is a much simpler topic: fencing. Every property usually has a fence. Every owner would like to build one and it is somewhat expected. There are many reasons for it: security, theft protection, privacy, property boundaries. These are all valid reasons. The challenge here is that a proper fence wall costs hardly less than a conventional building wall. The construction method is almost the same. Stable foundations and many cement blocks.

Even on a medium-sized property, the length of the fence wall is very large and can be an enormous financial burden. Considering alternatives is therefore sensible. An example from Ghana, where traditional residential complexes often share a common courtyard, with the buildings also serving as a fence. This typology is very flexible and additional buildings can be added over time. In these two projects for a school and a youth center in Ghana, a similar principle was applied. The classrooms form a courtyard and the fence is only between them, and not around the entire property.

This type of fencing design is particularly suitable for rural areas with more space. If a clear delineation of the property is required, it is worth checking whether instead of an expensive wall, a soft boundary with plants, wood, bamboo, or stone is possible. Here is another simple concept for a school or a similar public building, that is easy to apply. We start with three adjacent classrooms. Opposite, an identical building is added, forming a courtyard.

A slight shift improves access, and only one small section of fence is needed to enclose the complex. It is a very flexible concept, that allows for future expansions with minimal demolition work. This example illustrates very well the situations in which a fence wall is built first and the buildings only follow later. This way of thinking may be suitable for private homes, but when it comes to financing within the framework of development cooperation, it is often impossible to finance hundreds of meters of fence.

Another typical situation, seen here, is related to the proximity of the fence walls to the buildings and to how often these become empty, non-functional spaces. Legally, a minimum distance of two to three meters is usually required, which often leads to too much unused space. This is an alternative solution for the space between the building and the fence wall in a school project. Here, this space is instead designed as an extension of the classrooms.

There are large pivot doors, which open towards the fence side and make the classrooms seem larger. A large roof overhang that extends for almost 1.5 meters, contributes to the feeling of an enclosed space. This way, something that is usually considered leftover space for water tanks, storage rooms, and waste, can be transformed into a high-quality, partially covered outdoor area with just a few small adjustments.

The ideal number of floors in a building depends heavily on the size of the lot and the function of the building. Here are some pros and cons. Ground floor buildings are generally safer in terms of disasters, because the roof structures are lighter and evacuation is easier. Implementing various alternative construction methods is easier and offers more opportunities to achieve a better microclimate indoors. Ground floor buildings can be simpler, therefore it is much easier to build in a cost-effective way, especially when construction standards are not very high.

The spaces are directly connected to the surroundings and landscape, which facilitates access to the courtyard and other shared outdoor areas. The outdoor area serves as an entrance and access corridor. In a multi-story building, of course, the biggest and smallest advantage is that it takes up less space on the lot. In urban areas, where land prices are high and continue to rise, there’s not much to discuss; you build as high as possible.

Once there is more than one floor, it is necessary to build staircases or even ramps for people with disabilities, as well as to use a significant portion of the space for hallways. This is an important factor to consider when calculating construction costs per square meter of usable space. Achieving cross-ventilation is much more difficult, and it is much more likely that ceiling fans will be needed. The floor slabs are almost always made of reinforced concrete, and due to the structural complexity, there will be an increased number of other elements, like supports or walls, that are built from concrete.

Here is an example of a multipurpose building, where these two options create a similar spatial concept. A simple comparison shows how the ratio of built to usable space in buildings with more than one floor is much less favorable. This analysis and the discussion about the actual requirements and the integration of the building into its surroundings led to this final design. The star shape is very flexible, so it was not necessary to cut down the surrounding trees.

In another example, the construction of a two-story building was chosen out of necessity, even though a large plot of land was available: the area is in fact suject to annual flooding, which can rise up to 1.5 meters above the ground. The ground floor is a flood-resistant concrete base, without fixed furnishings, multifunctional and flexible, connected to the outdoor space as an extension of the building. The first floor, an elevated wooden structure, serves as a library: it is a quiet space for reading, studying, and working, filled with books and computers, protected from floods or theft.

There are various types of openings, but most often the biggest planning decisions are made in the design of windows. Here, the conception differs greatly, depending on whether it is public buildings, which are used throughout the day, such as schools, or private residences or dormitories where one stays overnight. Or on the other side, for health facilities and hospitals, which require higher hygiene standards. Regardless of the situation, the challenges are very similar. More daylight and ventilation are always desired, but without increased heat, but with protection against theft and mosquitoes.

It is never possible to consider everything, therefore one should set priorities according to the specific project needs. A typical residential window often consists of three layers, an outer mosquito net, iron security bars, and glass louver windows, which keep out dust and rain. Grills installed inside provide good protection, but they do not look the best and make it difficult to open the windows. A common solution for glass windows is aluminum sliding windows. This is a very simple, inexpensive window, that is widely used everywhere.

Unfortunately, they have a major disadvantage. They slide, which means, that they can never be fully opened. 50% of the window always remains closed, which significantly reduces the ventilation area. In countries with hot climates, where source ventilation is essential for a pleasant microclimate, this poses a significant problem. For this reason, ceiling fans are a standard feature in many buildings. Public buildings like schools offer more opportunities for alternative solutions and better climatic conditions inside, as they do not necessarily require glazing, and mosquito nets are usually not used.

Classes take place at times when mosquitoes are not active and the durability and maintenance of nets in most public buildings is not realistic. Here is an example of pivot windows, which can be fully opened. Classic wooden casement windows are of course a very good and affordable option, if available. They are usually made on-site by carpenters. Another cost-effective and valid way to introduce light and ventilation is to leave openings in the brick walls, theoretically having no real windows at all.

A dropped ceiling, similar to sliding windows, is another element that is often used, although it is not always necessary. It is quite common practice to close the roof, to hide the roof structure, to keep the used spaces clean, and to improve sound insulation during rain. All of these are valid reasons, but this measure has a very important disadvantage: it reduces the air volume in the rooms. When combining the dropped ceiling with sliding windows, one easily ends up with rooms, that cannot function at all without ceiling fans.

In the case of these dormitories, children had to sleep outside when there was no electricity as it was too hot inside. Sometimes the roof structures are so large with a steep roof pitch, that the air volume of the roof matches the volume of the rooms below. Here are some examples of schools in Uganda, where the roof space is kept open. They all appear much larger because they are higher. As warm air rises, it fills the space under the roof and keeps the lower area cooler.

Some of the warm air can even escape outside without proper roof openings, as the roofs are almost never perfectly sealed. Here are some photos of typical classrooms with ceilings and an average height of three meters or less. One can argue about the appearance, it’s a matter of taste. But when it comes to the air volume in classrooms or similar spaces that are almost always overcrowded, every cubic meter of air counts. Good learning conditions are crucial, if children are to learn effectively, and they need air.

There are always alternatives. Here is a cost-effective double ceiling made of fabric, which visually suggests a ceiling, but allows warm air to pass through. For the part of the roof that is visible from the outside and often covers the entrance, a covering is always recommended, as long as the budget allows it. A complete covering is usually the most effective solution, but most importantly, it is necessary to actually cover it in such a way that it protects against theft or the entry of animals.

As for the outdoor porch, it is very common to design this space very wide, which is definitely good, as it serves as a covered entrance area, which acts as an extension of the interior. However, since this space is very wide, additional supports are required, which increases the overall budget of the project. To save costs, a roof overhang extending up to 1.5 meters can be built without additional supports, providing sufficient shielding against rain and protects the entrance. So a quick summary: removing the ceiling improves ventilation and microclimate. Windows on both sides allow for cross-ventilation and through roof openings, rising warm air can be vented. And if the building function allows it, roof openings are a valuable addition.

They can be filled in many different ways, but must always be technically well sealed, to keep tight during heavy rain, while also considering the wind direction. In rooms with computers or other valuable items that can be damaged by water, one should be especially careful or possibly avoid such solutions. The technical solution does not have to be so complicated, as it was implemented in this example with the tent roof, but can also be designed more simply, as shown here.

Everything is realized within the same wooden truss, which also contains the frame for the opening. The opening is located on the roof, but it is open to the side, which provides better protection against rain and it is additionally protected by shutters. Here is an even simpler solution in combination with a gable roof. It is almost like an additional roof over the existing roof. This construction can be implemented quite easily and does not significantly increase construction costs.

If the sides are well protected and the roof overhang is large enough, it is also a very safe solution. And if a standard roof opening is too complicated to implement, an even simpler solution is available: a large opening at the highest point of a shed roof. The wooden beams are very simple with the opening only on one side of the room.

An important, often overlooked aspect is the outdoor areas, which always lag behind the buildings in budget and planning, since they are more costly. Trees are almost free, they just need to be planted as early as possible. Of course, they need time to grow, but once they are large, they change the appearance of a construction project significantly, provide shade, and lower the overall temperature. A sample project in Mozambique combines vegetation with building structures.

Several small buildings are connected by a green canopy and form a circle around a green courtyard. Larger trees should also be planted here. The construction style of the buildings is flexible and simple. It almost doesn’t matter how they look, but the part that makes the space special is the canopy, that covers everything, various small spaces between the buildings and provides protection from the sun. The project benefits from simple and inexpensive elements, an additional quality.

Another thing that can be implemented quite cost-effectively, but brings great joy in its benefits, is playgrounds, ideally with some shade. When it comes to educational facilities, we sometimes forget who the target audience is and that play is one of the most important parts of life. A simple swing can become the central point of an entire project. Here are some more examples from various projects by the Peruvian organization Semillas, which places great value on this aspect of the projects.